2-13 USING STRINGS AND CHARACTER ARRAYS
****************************************
Comparison between strings and character arrays
-----------------------------------------------
| Strings | Character arrays
=============================|======================|========================
Substring notation | ST(I:J) | not allowed
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Array notation | not allowed | AR(I)
=============================|======================|========================
Constant declaration syntax | CHARACTER ST*10 | CHARACTER AR(10)
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Block I/O operations | whole [sub]string | only with an implied DO
of the constant notation | |
=============================|======================|========================
Star declaration syntax | CHARACTER ST*(*) | CHARACTER AR(*)
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Semantics of the star | the length is passed | no length information
declaration syntax | transparently | is passed
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Block I/O operations | whole [sub]string | only with an implied DO
of the star notation | |
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Mechanisms used for | hidden argument, | you are responsible
passing the length | descriptor, | to keep inside bounds
=============================|======================|========================
Variable declaration syntax | CHARACTER ST*(N) | CHARACTER ST*(N)
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
Variable declaration | | the usual adjustable
semantics | | array mechanism
-----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------
The blank padding
-----------------
When you declare a FORTRAN's string, you define the maximal length it can
have ("the physical length"). Whole string operations "using" only "part"
of it, e.g. assignment of a shorter string, or reading a shorter record,
automatically pads the rest of the string with blanks (spaces).
CHARACTER STRING*12
...........................
STRING = 'FORTRAN'
|--------------- Physical Length ---------------|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| F | O | R | T | R | A | N | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|------ Logical Length -----|---- Blank tail ---|
It is clear that the physical length doesn't change, but the logical
length may change on each assignment or read operation.
A subtle point about FORTRAN strings is that the "logical" length of the
string is not well-defined - it is defined only up to an arbitrary number
of trailing blank characters. Having assigned some text to a string all
the information on the original number of trailing blank characters is
irreversibly lost, e.g. trying to concatenate the text in two strings is
ambiguous, you can't be sure if there was one or more blanks at the end
of the first one.
CHARACTER ST1*10, ST2*10
...........................
ST1 = 'FORTRAN'
ST2 = 'FORTRAN '
IF (ST1 .EQ. ST2) WRITE (*,*) 'The strings are equal! '
The blank padding at the end of the string is counted when you use the
LEN() function to find the string's length, or when you WRITE the string.
To find the "true" length of the string use:
integer function strlen(st)
integer i
character st*(*)
i = len(st)
do while (st(i:i) .eq. ' ')
i = i - 1
enddo
strlen = i
return
end
Strings don't come initialized with blanks, if the compiler initializes
them (VMS, Sun) they are initialized to NULs. Note that some terminals
(e.g. VTnnn) ignore NUL characters and if such a string is written to the
screen there will be no visible output (except the start of a new line).
Self-assignment of strings
--------------------------
Be careful when assigning strings to themselves, the FORTRAN 77 standard
prohibits some common situations (Fortran 90 lifted this restriction).
A string (or sub-string) STR may not be assigned a character expression
that one of its components is an overlapping substring of STR itself.
A small example program:
PROGRAM SLFASS
CHARACTER
* STRING*10
STRING = '1234567890'
STRING(2:) = STRING
WRITE (*,*) ' Correct result is: 1123456789 '
WRITE (*,*) ' Local result is: ', STRING
END
On some machines you'll get a string composed of 1s only!
The FORTRAN 77 standard didn't allow "self assignments" because the
"right" way to do it requires (in the general case) using a temporary
character variable whose length is known only at run-time. Some older
machines used at the time the FORTRAN 77 standard was written had
problems with dynamic (run-time) memory allocations, to accommodate
their needs the standard choosed to restrict character assignments.
A possible workaround for "self assignments" is concatenation
with a null string:
STRING(2:) = STRING // ''
Null strings
------------
The FORTRAN standard doesn't allow null constant strings (strings
with length = 0), you can check that with a small program:
PROGRAM NULSTR
C ------------------------------------------------------------------
CHARACTER*1 STRING
C ------------------------------------------------------------------
STRING = ''
WRITE(*,*) ' STRING= |', STRING, '|'
C ------------------------------------------------------------------
END
Input/Output
------------
FORTRAN supports input and output of strings, a very convenient
feature, and a rich set of string operations.
You can use WRITE and READ with passed strings since they are not
assumed-size strings, although the syntax looks similar.
Sub-string manipulations
------------------------
The following code shows some elementary 'tricks':
INTEGER OFFSET1, OFFSET2
CHARACTER STRING1*20, STRING2*20
......................................
STRING1 = 'bla bla bla (FORTRAN) bla bla ... '
OFFSET1 = INDEX('(', STRING1) + 1
OFFSET2 = INDEX(')', STRING1) - 1
STRING2 = STRING1(OFFSET1:OFFSET2)
STRING2 = ' ' // STRING2
WRITE(UNIT=*, FMT=*) STRING2
WRITE(UNIT=*, FMT=*) STRING2 // STRING2
WRITE(UNIT=*, FMT=*) STRING2 // STRING2 // STRING2
INDEX() is an intrinsic standard FORTRAN function - a function that
every FORTRAN compiler knows. INDEX takes two arguments, both of them
are strings, it looks for the first string inside the second and
returns the place the first string begins inside the second.
For example:
ST1 = 'good'
ST2 = 'Fortran is good'
123456789012345
INDEX(ST1,ST2) is equal 12
The // is the concatenation operator, it takes two strings and 'adds'
them one after the other, to form one larger string.
You may use the // operator with passed string operands only in
assignment statements. Other FORTRAN statements (e.g. WRITE) may
accepts string concatenations, but it's against the standard.
For example:
C ------------------------------------------------------------------
CHARACTER
* ST1*7,
* ST2*3,
* ST3*5
C ------------------------------------------------------------------
ST1 = 'Fortran'
ST2 = ' is'
ST3 = ' good'
ST1 // ST2 // ST3 is equal 'Fortran is good'
If the strings were defined with lengths larger than the non-blank
content, they would be padded by blanks, and when the // operator
will be applied the strings complete with the padding blanks will
be concatenated together to produce a rather ugly result.
You can find the beginning of the blank padding (maybe with the
INDEX function), and use a substring excluding it.
+-------------------------------------------------+
| USE STRINGS TO MANIPULATE FILE NAMES, ETC |
+-------------------------------------------------+
A much more important factor in the social movement than those already mentioned was the ever-increasing influence of women. This probably stood at the lowest point to which it has ever fallen, during the classic age of Greek life and thought. In the history of Thucydides, so far as it forms a connected series of events, four times only during a period of nearly seventy years does a woman cross the scene. In each instance her apparition only lasts for a moment. In three of the four instances she is a queen or a princess, and belongs either to the half-barbarous kingdoms of northern Hellas or to wholly barbarous Thrace. In the one remaining instance208— that of the woman who helps some of the trapped Thebans to make their escape from Plataea—while her deed of mercy will live for ever, her name is for ever lost.319 But no sooner did philosophy abandon physics for ethics and religion than the importance of those subjects to women was perceived, first by Socrates, and after him by Xenophon and Plato. Women are said to have attended Plato’s lectures disguised as men. Women formed part of the circle which gathered round Epicurus in his suburban retreat. Others aspired not only to learn but to teach. Arêtê, the daughter of Aristippus, handed on the Cyrenaic doctrine to her son, the younger Aristippus. Hipparchia, the wife of Crates the Cynic, earned a place among the representatives of his school. But all these were exceptions; some of them belonged to the class of Hetaerae; and philosophy, although it might address itself to them, remained unaffected by their influence. The case was widely different in Rome, where women were far more highly honoured than in Greece;320 and even if the prominent part assigned to them in the legendary history of the city be a proof, among others, of its untrustworthiness, still that such stories should be thought worth inventing and preserving is an indirect proof of the extent to which feminine influence prevailed. With the loss of political liberty, their importance, as always happens at such a conjuncture, was considerably increased. Under a personal government there is far more scope for intrigue than where law is king; and as intriguers women are at least the209 equals of men. Moreover, they profited fully by the levelling tendencies of the age. One great service of the imperial jurisconsults was to remove some of the disabilities under which women formerly suffered. According to the old law, they were placed under male guardianship through their whole life, but this restraint was first reduced to a legal fiction by compelling the guardian to do what they wished, and at last it was entirely abolished. Their powers both of inheritance and bequest were extended; they frequently possessed immense wealth; and their wealth was sometimes expended for purposes of public munificence. Their social freedom seems to have been unlimited, and they formed combinations among themselves which probably served to increase their general influence.321 The old religions of Greece and Italy were essentially oracular. While inculcating the existence of supernatural beings, and prescribing the modes according to which such beings were to be worshipped, they paid most attention to the interpretation of the signs by which either future events in general, or the consequences of particular actions, were supposed to be divinely revealed. Of these intimations, some were given to the whole world, so that he who ran might read, others were reserved for certain favoured localities, and only communicated through the appointed ministers of the god. The Delphic oracle in particular enjoyed an enormous reputation both among Greeks and barbarians for guidance afforded under the latter conditions; and during a considerable period it may even be said to have directed the course of Hellenic civilisation. It was also under this form that supernatural religion suffered most injury from the great intellectual movement which followed the Persian wars. Men who had learned to study the constant sequences of Nature for themselves, and to shape their conduct according to fixed principles of prudence or of justice, either thought it irreverent to trouble the god about questions on which they were competent to form an opinion for themselves, or did not choose to place a well-considered scheme at the mercy of his possibly interested responses. That such a revolution occurred about the middle of the fifth century B.C., seems proved by the great change of tone in reference to this subject which one perceives on passing from Aeschylus to Sophocles. That anyone should question the veracity of an oracle is a supposition which never crosses the mind of the elder dramatist. A knowledge of augury counts among the greatest benefits222 conferred by Prometheus on mankind, and the Titan brings Zeus himself to terms by his acquaintance with the secrets of destiny. Sophocles, on the other hand, evidently has to deal with a sceptical generation, despising prophecies and needing to be warned of the fearful consequences brought about by neglecting their injunctions. The stranger had a pleasant, round face, with eyes that twinkled in spite of the creases around them that showed worry. No wonder he was worried, Sandy thought: having deserted the craft they had foiled in its attempt to get the gems, the man had returned from some short foray to discover his craft replaced by another. “Thanks,” Dick retorted, without smiling. When they reached him, in the dying glow of the flashlight Dick trained on a body lying in a heap, they identified the man who had been warned by his gypsy fortune teller to “look out for a hidden enemy.” He was lying at full length in the mould and leaves. "But that is sport," she answered carelessly. On the retirement of Townshend, Walpole reigned supreme and without a rival in the Cabinet. Henry Pelham was made Secretary at War; Compton Earl of Wilmington Privy Seal. He left foreign affairs chiefly to Stanhope, now Lord Harrington, and to the Duke of Newcastle, impressing on them by all means to avoid quarrels with foreign Powers, and maintain the blessings of peace. With all the faults of Walpole, this was the praise of his political system, which system, on the meeting of Parliament in the spring of 1731, was violently attacked by Wyndham and Pulteney, on the plea that we were making ruinous treaties, and sacrificing British interests, in order to benefit Hanover, the eternal millstone round the neck of England. Pulteney and Bolingbroke carried the same attack into the pages of The Craftsman, but they failed to move Walpole, or to shake his power. The English Government, instead of treating Wilkes with a dignified indifference, was weak enough to show how deeply it was touched by him, dismissed him from his commission of Colonel of the Buckinghamshire Militia, and treated Lord Temple as an abettor of his, by depriving him of the Lord-Lieutenancy of the same county, and striking his name from the list of Privy Councillors, giving the Lord-Lieutenancy to Dashwood, now Lord Le Despencer. "I tell you what I'll do," said the Deacon, after a little consideration. "I feel as if both Si and you kin stand a little more'n you had yesterday. I'll cook two to-day. We'll send a big cupful over to Capt. McGillicuddy. That'll leave us two for to-morrer. After that we'll have to trust to Providence." "Indeed you won't," said the Surgeon decisively. "You'll go straight home, and stay there until you are well. You won't be fit for duty for at least a month yet, if then. If you went out into camp now you would have a relapse, and be dead inside of a week. The country between here and Chattanooga is dotted with the graves of men who have been sent back to the front too soon." "Adone do wud that—though you sound more as if you wur in a black temper wud me than as if you pitied me." "Wot about this gal he's married?" "Don't come any further." "Davy, it 'ud be cruel of us to go and leave him." "Insolent priest!" interrupted De Boteler, "do you dare to justify what you have done? Now, by my faith, if you had with proper humility acknowledged your fault and sued for pardon—pardon you should have had. But now, you leave this castle instantly. I will teach you that De Boteler will yet be master of his own house, and his own vassals. And here I swear (and the baron of Sudley uttered an imprecation) that, for your meddling knavery, no priest or monk shall ever again abide here. If the varlets want to shrieve, they can go to the Abbey; and if they want to hear mass, a priest can come from Winchcombe. But never shall another of your meddling fraternity abide at Sudley while Roland de Boteler is its lord." "My lord," said Edith, in her defence, "this woman has sworn falsely. The medicine I gave was a sovereign remedy, if given as I ordered. Ten drops would have saved the child's life; but the contents of the phial destroyed it. The words I uttered were prayers for the life of the child. My children, and all who know me, can bear witness that I have a custom of asking His blessing upon all I take in hand. I raised my eyes towards heaven, and muttered words; but, my lord, they were words of prayer—and I looked up as I prayed, to the footstool of the Lord. But it is in vain to contend: the malice of the wicked will triumph, and Edith Holgrave, who even in thought never harmed one of God's creatures, must be sacrificed to cover the guilt, or hide the thoughtlessness of another." "Aye, Sir Treasurer, thou hast reason to sink thy head! Thy odious poll-tax has mingled vengeance—nay, blood—with the cry of the bond." HoME古一级毛片免费观看
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